Studying for the Final

I wanted to provide a few additional notes so you can prepare well for the final. As you know from the syllabus the format is multiple choice, short answer, and essay. There will be approximately 50 questions and three essays to answer. Please review the books as well as you can. I would encourage re-reading the first and last paragraphs of each chapter to help reacquaint you with the content. Also scan your additional readings. That said, the bulk of the test will come from our discussions in class so I wanted to run through each class and the overarching points that we hit on. As to the essays, I will frame four questions that touch on several areas that we've studied. If you study for the exam, you'll be well prepared for the essays. They will each will require about a page of writing so bring some paper with you. I will give you four questions and you can choose three. (Click "read more to see a brief outline to help your review.)

Class 1
- The Reformation (Jan Hus, Martin Luther, Henry VIII, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, John of Leyden)
- The idea of the Old and New Worlds (Indians, manifest destiny, religious freedom)

Class 2
- Exploration (Spain, Portugal, France, England)
- Colonization and New World Utopias (Puritans, Pilgrims, Anglicanism, John Winthrop, Roger Williams, William Penn)
- The lesson of Oliver Cromwell (Puritans in England as a precursor to the Revolution)

Class 3
- The Age of Enlightenment and its heightened view of reason
- The Great Awakening - causes, results, reactions (John and Charles Wesley, George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards (especially))
- A Working Up to Revolution (problems with Anglicanism, reasoned religion means everyone can be saved and reason suggests freedom)

Class 4
- The Revolution (Acts, civil religion in the Declaration)
- Volunteerism (American Bible Society, American Sunday School Union, American Tract Society)
- Second Great Awakening - difference from first, causes, results (Charles Finney)
- Utopias (Shakers, Oneidas, William Miller, Seventh-day Adventists, Alexander Campbell and Cane Ridge)

Class 5
- Unitarianism and Transcendentalism
- Slavery (cotton demand, "backwardness," codes, Upper and Lower South,
- Revolt and Abolition (Wilberforce, Prosser, Vesey, Turner, Garrison, Douglass, Stowe, Tubman and Underground Railroad, Brown)
- The Civil War

Class 6
- Immigration and problems with American identity - religion and ethnicity (Jews, Lutherans, Chinese, Japanese, Catholic)
- Black America (E.K. Love,
- Women and Religion (Antionette Brown Black, Elizabeth Cady Stanton)
- Americanization efforts (temperance, Sunday, Public schools, Josiah Strong)
- D.L. Moody (personal Jesus, soul-winning, better world through prayer...)
- Christian Science and Jehovah Witnesses
- The World's Parliament of Religions

Class 7
- Industrial Revolution
- Social Gospel (Washington Gladden, Charles Sheldon, Jane Addams, Cardinal Gibbons, Walter Rauschenbusch, 1908, 1918)
- Consumer Culture (Bruce Barton, prosperity)
- Pop Culture- building your own "anytime" Jesus (reflect on question from clips in blog entry and the readings for this week)

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Randy Balmer on the Religious Right

This is a good review of your reading of Randy Balmer's God in the Whitehouse. It's a lecture he gave at Mercer as well as Emory. It helps capsulize the issues related to politics and religion, especially post-1979 and especially with Christians. Do you agree with his arguments? Do you find holes in what he's saying in terms of working inside politics with strong religious convictions that may produce a social and moral agenda that segments people? Doesn't morality segment out people from people naturally anyway?

Here's the link.

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Hip Hop Jesus

Here are a list of links we looked at in class. What are your thoughts? Do you see any connections from the study we've done and the outgrowth in today's culture?

- "Infant Jesus Prayer" from Talladega Nights

- "Sex Challenge" from Ed Young

- "Inaugural Prayer" by Rick Warren

- "Yahweh or No Way" from The Colbert Report

- "Praying for Wings" from a Tyler Perry play

- "Fight the Devil" by T.D. Jakes

- "After 9-11" from Jerry Falwell

- "God in the Whitehouse" from Randy Balmer on The Daily Show

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USA: Marked with "Insufficient Funds"

Martin Luther King began his "I Have a Dream" speech with the words below. What does it mean that 100 years after the emancipation, King would have to address the nation in this way? What does it say about the War's result and the South's resolve?

Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity...

But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. So we have come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.

In a sense we have come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. So we have come to cash this check — a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism.

Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quick sands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children...

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Glory! Glory! Hallelujah!

Julia Howe (yes that's her in the photo) wrote this hymn in 1861 while viewing the movement of soldiers. It's an abolitionist hymn and Julia was a Northerner. Are there problems with relating the victory of Jesus to the victory of the Union? What does this suggest in terms of manifest destiny of the United States and the mythologies and realities of Christianity in marriage with the country?

Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord;
 He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored;
He hath loosed the fateful lightning of His terrible swift sword;
 His truth is marching on...

Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! Glory! Glory! Hallelujah!
 Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! His truth is marching on.

I have seen Him in the watch fires of a hundred circling camps
. They have builded Him an altar in the evening dews and damps; 
I can read His righteous sentence by the dim and flaring lamps;
 His day is marching on.


Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! Glory! Glory! Hallelujah!
 Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! His day is marching on.

I have read a fiery Gospel writ in burnished rows of steel;
 “As ye deal with My contemners, so with you My grace shall deal”;
 Let the Hero, born of woman, crush the serpent with His heel,
 Since God is marching on.


Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! Glory! Glory! Hallelujah!
 Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! Since God is marching on.

He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat;
 He is sifting out the hearts of men before His judgment seat;
 Oh, be swift, my soul, to answer Him! be jubilant, my feet;
 Our God is marching on.


Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! Our God is marching on.

In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea,
 With a glory in His bosom that transfigures you and me:
 As He died to make men holy, let us live to make men free; 
[originally …let us die to make men free]
 While God is marching on.


Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! Glory! Glory! Hallelujah!
 Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! While God is marching on.

He is coming like the glory of the morning on the wave,
He is wisdom to the mighty, He is honor to the brave;
 So the world shall be His footstool, and the soul of wrong His slave,
Our God is marching on.


Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! 
Glory! Glory! Hallelujah! Our God is marching on.

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The Civil War Draws Us

Robert Penn Warren in The Legacy of the Civil War says,

The Civil War draws us as an oracle, darkly unriddled and portentous, of personal, as well as national, fate. In any case, the Civil War occurred. "Whether or not the war was inevitable," as Benard de Voto says, the crisis was." The conflicts had to be solved, but the fact that "they were not solved short of war is our greatest national tragedy."

What does it mean to say that there is a drawing to the Civil War? What are the religious overtones, especially ones of civil religion, as we've discussed in class?

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The Tales of Brer Rabbit

The Tales of Brer Rabbit were written by Joel Chandler Harris of Eatonton, Ga. They were told from the perspective of Uncle Remus and were adapted from the oral tradition that Harris had heard on a plantation where he worked. There has been some talk about the stories and their meaning. In fact, that's a primary reason that Disney hasn't released Song of the South (a film based on the Tales).

What say you? Is it racist? Does it speak into something about white people or black people? Here is a clip of the Disney rendition.

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John Brown's Ethics

John Brown was the abolitionist that took a sword to the scalps of five proslavery men in Kansas. He also invaded the stockpile of weapons at Harpers Ferry before he was captured, tried, and hanged. What do you you think of John Brown. Here's an excerpt of his final words. The fuller account is linked in the readings on the right...

In the first place, I deny every thing but what I have already admitted, of a design on my part to free Slaves. I intended, certainly, to have made a clean thing of that matter, as I did last winter, when I went into Missouri, and there took Slaves, without the snapping of a gun on either side, moving them through the country, and finally leaving them in Canada. I desired to have done the same thing again, on a much larger scale. That was all I intended. I never did intend murder, or treason, or the destruction of property, or to excite or incite Slaves to rebellion, or to make insurrection.

I have another objection, and that is, that it is unjust that I should suffer such a penalty. Had I interfered in the manner, and which I admit has been fairly proved,--for I admire the truthfulness and candor of the greater portion of the witnesses who have testified in this case,--had I so interfered in behalf of the Rich, the Powerful, the Intelligent, the so-called Great, or in behalf of any of their friends, either father, mother, brother, sister, wife, or children, or any of that class, and suffered and sacrificed what I have in this interference, it would have been all right. Every man in this Court would have deemed it an act worthy a reward, rather than a punishment.

This Court acknowledges too, as I suppose, the validity of the Law of God. I saw a book kissed, which I suppose to be the Bible, or at least the New Testament, which teaches me that, "All things whatsoever I would that men should do to me, I should do even so to them." It teaches me further, to "Remember them that are in bonds, as bound with them." I endeavored to act up to that instruction. I say I am yet too young to understand that God is any respecter of persons. I believe that to have interfered as I have done, as I have always freely admitted I have done, in behalf of his despised poor, I have done no wrong, but RIGHT.

Now, if it is deemed necessary that I should forfeit my life, for the furtherance of the ends of justice, and MINGLE MY BLOOD FURTHER WITH THE BLOOD OF MY CHILDREN, and with the blood of millions in this Slave country, whose rights are disregarded by wicked, cruel, and unjust enactments,--I say, LET IT BE DONE.

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Underground Railroad

Watch this small video about the underground railroad. It's a bit rough, but it has some good information. Here's the link.

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Runaway Slave Advertisements

Before the Fugitive Slave Law that was enacted as part of the Compromise of 1850 required citizens to assist in recovering runaway slaves, slaveowners did not have an official system of finding and recovering runaways. Generally, owners placed detailed advertisements in local papers, promising monetary rewards that they hoped would encourage private citizens to assist in returning fugitive slaves. The advertisements below are typical of the period. What do you see in these? Tension? Anxiety? Changing of the times? Other things?

$10 Reward for a negro woman, named Sally, 40 years old. We have just reason to believe the said negro to be now lurking on the James River Canal, or in the Green Spring neighborhood, where we are informed, her husband resides. The above reward will be given to any person securing her. (Richmond Enquirer, February 20, 1838.)

$50 Reward. --Ran away from the subscriber, his negro man Pauladore, commonly called Paul. I understand GEN. R.Y. HAYNE has purchased his wife and children from H.L. PINCKNEY, ESQ. and has them now on his plantation at Goosecreek, where, no doubt, the fellow is frequently lurking. (Richmond Enquirer, February 20, 1838.)

The subscriber will give $20 for the apprehension of his negro woman, Maria, who ran away about twelve months since. She is known to be lurking in or about Chuckatuch, in the county of Nansemond, where she has a husband, and formerly belonged. (Norfolk Beacon, March 31, 1838.)

Ranaway from the subscriber, two negroes, Davis, a man about 45 year old; also Peggy, his wife, near the same age. Said negroes will probably make their way to Columbia county, as they have children, living in that county. I will liberally reward any person who may deliver them to me. (Macon Messenger, January 16, 1839.)

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From John Adams

John Adams writes about the growing grievances that the Colonies have against the British crown. We'll see that Adams is strategic in organizing a structure for revolution.

This excerpt is from his collection around the time of Britain's Writs of Assistance, those “instruments of slavery,” as the colonists called them:

The Views of the English Government towards the Collonies and the Views of the Collonies towards the English Government, from the first of our History to that time, appeared to me to have been directly in Opposition to each other, and were now by the imprudence of Administration, brought todash a Collision. England proud of its power and holding Us in Contempt would never give up its pretentions. The Americans devoutly attached to their Liberties, would never submit, at least without an entire devastation of the Country and a general destruction of their Lives. A Contest appeared to me to be opened, to which I could foresee no End, and which would render my Life a Burden and Property, Industry and every Thing insecure. There was no Alternative left, but to take the Side, which appeared to be just, to march intrepidly forward in the right path, to trust in providence for the Protection of Truth and right, and to die with a good Conscience and a decent grace, if that Tryal should become indispensible.

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There's No Good In You... Witch!

We didn't talk about the Salem Witch Trials in class, but it's an outgrowth of the Puritanical dogmas that led to suspicion and abuse. In all the trials were not as widespread as the lore around them suggests. 19 "witches" were hanged in 1692, one "wizard" was pressed to death, and at least four others died in prison.

Here's a summary account of Mary Barker, one accused of witchcraft at the Salem trials of 1692-93 (Warning: the English is hard to follow because the spellings are exactly like our modern day.):

29'th August 1692 -- Before Maj'r Gidny Mr Hathorne Mr Cor-
win The Examination And Confession of Mary Barker of And-
ivor -- after Several Questions Propounded & Neagative ans'rs 
Returned She at last acknowledged that Goody Johnson made her 
a witch & that Some time last Sumer She made a Red Mark in the 
Divels book w'th the fore finger of her left hand & the Divel would 
have her hurt Martha Sprage Rose foster & Abigall Martin w'ch 
She did on Satterday & Sabbath day last She Said She was not above 
a Quart'r of an hour a Coming Dwone from Andivor to Salem to 
afflict She S'd She afflicted the above S'd 3 persons by Squezing her 
hands She Confesses She was at the Witch Metting at Salem Village 
w'th her unkle, there was a grate many there & of her Company was 
only her unkle W'm Barker & Mary Marston --

Martha Sprage S'd 
that Mary Barkers apperition told that She was baptized at 5 Mile 
pond -- S'd Mary Barker S'd ther was Such a load & weight at her 
Stomack that Hindred her from Speaking & is afrayd She has Given 
up her Self Soul & body to the Divel She Says She promised to Serve 
worship & beleive in him & he promised to pardon her Sins but finds 
he has deceived her & that She was left of god & all good people 
& that Goody Johnson & Goody falkner apeared at the Same time 
& threatned to tear her in peices if she did not doe what She then did

She further Said that She had Seen no aperance Since but a fly w'ch did Speak to her & bid her afflict those poor Creaturs w'ch She did by pinching With Clinching of her hands for w'ch She is Sorry -- &further the Divel told her it would be very brave & Cliver for her to Come Dwone to Salem among those acused persons & that She Should Never be brought out She promised to Confese what more She Shall hearafter Rememb'r

Was this simply suspicion with no proof? Were they really afraid of the Devil (Divel for them)? What else might they be concerned with, or what external pressures drove them to this kind of expected absolutism from all of their citizenry?

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Questioning A Forced Faith

Roger Williams was part of the Massachusetts Bay Colony riding in under Winthrop's "Model of Christian Charity"... but when the model hit the new land it broke, or, at least, began to fall apart. Williams was a preacher and he had issues with the colony because of its strict religious codes and the treatment of the Indians. The problem: he wouldn't be quiet about it.

Instead of keeping this higher view about Indian rights to himself or the fact that only Puritans were accepted into the colony's fold, he let it be known that he disagreed. He was banished from the colony and ordered to return to England. However, he escaped and purchased land properly from the Indians and set up the town of Providence in what would become Rhode Island...

He became a Baptist (at least for a short time) which was much more open in their theology. But he gave that affiliation up as well, saying, "There is no regularly constituted church of Christ on earth, nor any person qualified to administer any church ordinances; nor can there be until new apostles are sent by the Great Head of the Church for whose coming I am seeking."

Further, he says, "The two first principles and foundations of true religion, or worship of the true God in Christ, are repentance from dead works and faith toward God, before the doctrines of baptism or washing and the laying on of hands, which continue the ordinances and practises of worship; the want of which I conceive is the bane of millions of souls in England and all other nations professing to be Christian nations, who are brought by public authority to baptism and fellowship with God in ordinances of worship, before the saving work of repentance and a true turning to Jehovah."

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Convert. You're a "Christless Creature"

Puritans divided mostly into two camps. One camp thought separating from the Church of England was the only way to keep themselves from the vile of a Church that was controlled by the Crown. The Separatists wanted a radically new church on independence and of the Book of Common Prayer. The Church of England regulated worship by way of the Book of Common Prayer. They didn’t make a clear expectation of conversion (though it would become even clearer post-pilgrim era). They were lofty in their priestly habits and they let anyone in... not only those who converted (or actively chose) to be part of the church. The non-separatist Puritans wanted to redeem the liturgy, theology, piety, and governance of the Church of England from within...

No matter, the church was central to the community and daily life of the Puritans, no matter which branch, and their relationships with God were equally important. Here’s a female colonist, Old Goodwife Cutter, describing her conversion. These conversion experiences were crucial to Puritanism, and the idea of submission to God was a necessary ingredient.

I was born in a sinful place where no sermon preached. My parents I knew not father, mother sent me to Newcastle, where placed in godly family as I think. And hearing—fear God, keep His commandments—two of which third and fourth I saw I broke. And six and seven years I was convinced thus; and I went to another family where the people were carnal and there fell to a consumption and after followed with Satan and afraid he would have me away. Mr Rodwell come to me and he was an instrument of much good to me. And afterward Lord’s hand was sad on me husband taken away and friends also to this place. And I desired to come this way in sickness time and Lord brought us through many sad troubles by sea and when I was hear the Lord rejoiced my heart. But when come I had lost all and no comfort and hearing from foolish virgins those that sprinkled with Christ’s blood were unloved. So I saw I was a Christless creature and hence in all ordinances was persuaded nothing did belong to me. Durst no seek nor call God Father nor think Christ shed His blood for me. And afterward I went to T[homas] S[hepard] and found more liberty and so had less fear....But I thought I had no repentance, yet I was encouraged to seek the Lord and to be content with His condemning will to lie at Lord’s feet. Seeing such need of Christ was not knowing whether else to go and that he that comes to me I’ll not cast away and so desired Lord to teach me and desired to submit.

And conversion is still an important part of many Christian churches throughout the first and second awakenings, through the revival period and on into today... but has it lessened especially in North America? How important is conversion in your story and those you've encountered?

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Chief Powhatan and Captain Smith

By 1609, relations between the Jamestown settlers and the Algonquian people, led by Chief Powhatan, had deteriorated. Trade continued, but the atmosphere was becoming increasingly hostile. In the excerpt below, Powhatan addresses Captain John Smith, legendary leader of the Jamestown settlement, and explains his concerns for the future of the relationship. What are your thoughts? What if the colonists had done something different like befriended the Indians like equals? Is there something integral in Christianity that calls the "other" out in sometimes negative ways? Read what Powhatan says...

I am now grown old, and must soon die; and the succession must descend, in order, to my brothers, Opitchapan, Opekankanough, and Catataugh, and then to my two sisters, and their two daughters. I wish their experience was equal to mine; and that your love to us might not be less than ours to you. Why should you take by force that from us which you can have by love? Why should you destroy us, who have provided you with food? What can you get by war? We can hide our provisions, and fly into the woods; and then you must consequently famish by wronging your friends. What is the cause of your jealousy? You see us unarmed, and willing to supply your wants, if you will come in a friendly manner, and not with swords and guns, as to invade an enemy. I am not so simple, as not to know it is better to eat good meat, lie well, and sleep quietly with my women and children; to laugh and be merry with the English; and, being their friend, to have copper, hatchets, and whatever else I want, than to fly from all, to lie cold in the woods, feed upon acorns, roots, and such trash, and to be so hunted, that I cannot rest, eat, or sleep. In such circumstances, my men must watch, and if a twig should but break, all would cry out, “Here comes Capt. Smith”; and so, in this miserable manner, to end my miserable life; and, Capt. Smith, this might be soon your fate too, through your rashness and unadvisedness. I, therefore, exhort you to peaceable councils; and, above all, I insist that the guns and swords, the cause of all our jealousy and uneasiness, be removed and sent away.

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Out With The Old; The New Has Better Immunity

With the onset of Virginia and the New England colonies, which will bring about Pennsylvania due to dissension and a call for further freedoms (of religion, mainly), we see more and more Indians dispersed and riddled with disease. Look at this map (click read more to see it and then click on the map for a large format). Remember that the indigenous people of America were throughout the continent. What are your thoughts?

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England Tries at the New World

Sir Walter Raleigh tries first in 1584, but by 1586 the group of colonists came back to England. (Raleigh was not actually with them, only funding the excursion.) They returned with no found or stolen gold and with the blood of a native American chief on their hands.

John White attempts again in 1587. This is also in Roanoke. Once again this will miserably fail. White is a painter and we get a glimpse of what he saw. What do you think about these drawings and what happened to the colony of Roanoke?

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Sailing the Ocean Blue

Below is a letter that Columbus writes to the treasurer of Spain about what he finds in the New World. He thinks he has found the islands of India, where he had set course to accomplish. What are your impressions of Columbus? Before you answer think about the reality of the world in 1492 and the loyalties he had to Spain as well as the confidences they placed in him for discovery. (Information about this image follows the letter's excerpt.)

There could be no believing, without seeing, such harbors as are here, as well as the many and great rivers, and excellent waters, most of which contain gold. In the trees and fruits and plants, there are great differences from those of Juana. In [La Spanola], there are many spiceries, and great mines of gold and other metals.

The people of this island, and of all the others that I have found and seen, or not seen, all go naked, men and women, just as their mothers bring them forth; although some women cover a single place with the leaf of a plant, or a cotton something which they make for that purpose. They have no iron or steel, nor any weapons; nor are they fit thereunto; not be because they be not a well-formed people and of fair stature, but that they are most wondrously timorous. They have no other weapons than the stems of reeds in their seeding state, on the end of which they fix little sharpened stakes. Even these, they dare not use; for many times has it happened that I sent two or three men ashore to some village to parley, and countless numbers of them sallied forth, but as soon as they saw those approach, they fled away in such wise that even a father would not wait for his son. And this was not because any hurt had ever done to any of them:-but such they are, incurably timid. It is true that since they have become more assured, and are losing that terror, they are artless and generous with what they have, to such a degree as no one would believe but him who had seen it. Of anything they have, if it be asked for, they never say no, but do rather invite the person to accept it, and show as much lovingness as though they would give their hearts. And whether it be a thing of value, or one of little worth, they are straightways content with whatsoever trifle of whatsoever kind may be given them in return for it. I forbade that anything so worthless as fragments of broken platters, and pieces of broken glass, and strapbuckles, should be given them; although when they were able to get such things, they seemed to think they had the best jewel in the world. . . .

And they knew no sect, nor idolatry; save that they all believe that power and goodness are in the sky, and they believed very firmly that I, with these ships and crew, came from the sky; and in such opinion, they received me at every place were I landed, after they had lost their terror. And this comes not because they are ignorant; on the contrary, they are men of very subtle wit, who navigate all those seas, and who give a marvellously good account of everything-but because they never saw men wearing clothes nor the like of our ships. And as soon as I arrived in the Indies, in the first island that I found, I took some of them by force to the intent that they should learn [our speech] and give me information of what there was in those parts. And so it was, that very soon they understood [us] and we them, what by speech or what by signs; and those [Indians] have been of much service . . . with loud cries of "Come! come to see the people from heaven!" Then, as soon as their minds were reassured about us, every one came, men as well as women, so that there remained none behind, big or little; and they all brought something to eat and drink, which they gave with wondrous lovingness. . . .

It seems to me that in all those islands, the men are all content with a single wife; and to their chief or king they give as many as twenty. The women, it appears to me, do more work than the men. Nor have I been able to learn whether they held personal property, for it seemed to me that whatever one had, they all took share of, especially of eatable things. Down to the present, I have not found in those islands any monstrous men, as many expected, but on the contrary all the people are very comely; nor are they black like those in Guinea, but have flowing hair; and they are not begotten where there is an excessive violence of the rays of the sun. . . . In those islands, where there are lofty mountains, the cold was very keen there, this winter; but they endured it by being accustomed thereto, and by the help of the meats which they eat with many and inordinately hot spices. . . .

Since thus our Redeemer has given to our most illustrious King and Queen, and to their famous kingdoms, this victory in so high a matter, Christendom should take gladness therein and make great festivals, and give solemn thanks to the Holy Trinity for the great exaltation they shall have by the conversion of so many peoples to our holy faith; and next for the temporal benefit which will bring hither refreshment and profit, not only to Spain, to all Christians. This briefly, in accordance with the facts. Dated, on the caravel, off the Canary Islands, the 15 February of the year 1493.

About the image: A woodcut entitled "Insula hyspana" shows two groups of naked Indians looking at each other as well as at the approaching Europeans in wonderment and apprehension. Two Europeans in a small boat row to the shore, while the caravel (resembling more Noah's ark than a 15th century sailing ship) sits in the water with its oars up. The scene is the moment before an exchange of gifts, while the scenery vaguely resembles a European pastoral. The image places the notion of exchange at the center of the encounter: each side was giving, each was getting.

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The Mayflower Compact

What do you think of the compact? Does it suggest the hopefulness and dissuade any perceived dissent? Here it is in its entirety:

IN THE NAME OF GOD, AMEN. We, whose names are underwritten, the Loyal Subjects of our dread Sovereign Lord King James, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, &c. Having undertaken for the Glory of God, and Advancement of the Christian Faith, and the Honour of our King and Country, a Voyage to plant the first Colony in the northern Parts of Virginia... Do by these Presents, solemnly and mutually, in the Presence of God and one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil Body Politick, for our better Ordering and Preservation, and Furtherance of the Ends aforesaid: And by Virtue hereof do enact, constitute, and frame, such just and equal Laws, Ordinances, Acts, Constitutions, and Officers, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general Good of the Colony; unto which we promise all due Submission and Obedience. IN WITNESS whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names at Cape-Cod the eleventh of November, in the Reign of our Sovereign Lord King James, of England, France, and Ireland, the eighteenth, and of Scotland the fifty-fourth, Anno Domini; 1620.

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Whence came all these people?

Here's a quote from J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur's Letters from an American Farmer. He came to America in 1754: "...whence came all these people? They are a mixture of English, Scotch, Irish, French, Dutch, Germans, and Swedes... What, then, is the American, this new man? He is neither a European nor the descendant of a European; hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country. I could point out to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman, whose wife was Dutch, whose son married a French woman, and whose present four sons have now four wives of different nations. He is an American, who, leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds. ...The Americans were once scattered all over Europe; here they are incorporated into one of the finest systems of population which has ever appeared."

What are your thoughts? What shapes and makes the American identity stick - then and now?

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